The Role of Community Empowerment in Reducing Female Genital Mutilation in Kenya

Author: Janae O'Connell

October 20, 2026

Masai women wearing traditional, colorful garb [Image credit: Shakir Mohamed/Pexels]

Introduction

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a common practice in many African countries, especially Kenya. While the exact number of women who have undergone this procedure is unknown, it is estimated that over four million women have been subjected to FGM in Kenya (UNICEF, 2021). The World Health Organization categorizes FGM into four types, ranging from the partial or total removal of external female genitalia to other injury to the genitalia for non-medical reasons (WHO, 2015). The most common type in Kenya is Type 2: the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and labia minora (Adam & Jebet, 2025).

Girls often undergo this procedure between the ages of five and fifteen. The practice is rooted in cultural traditions and gendered norms and is reinforced through community involvement, as female elders and medical professionals serve as practitioners, or “cutters,” and community leaders emphasize its importance in determining a girl’s marriageability and value (NHS, 2022). International, state-wide, and local actors have advocated against FGM due to its risk to health, human rights, and gender equality, but their efforts have fallen short in fully stopping this practice. This article evaluates the importance of community empowerment methods commonly used to curb FGM in Kenya.

Background

Cultural Significance

The exact origins of FGM are unknown, but historians hypothesize that the practice originated in the Middle East and spread into Africa, predating both Christianity and Islam. Today, many tribes in Kenya have adopted the practice, including the Somali, Kisii, Maasai, and Samburu. While the practice may vary across these tribes, its cultural implications and societal expectations remain the same; it marks a girl’s transition into adulthood.

The practice is indicative of long-standing societal and gendered expectations, as women are often expected to preserve modesty, obedience, and virginity before and during marriage. Therefore, women and girls who undergo this rite of passage are seen as more desirable and marriageable to men (Kawai et al., 2025). FGM is a representation of these beliefs, so women and girls who undergo the practice are seen to have fulfilled their gendered roles and, thus, have maintained their reputation and family’s honor. Additionally, families presume to reap more financial benefits if women and girls are cut. In some communities, members associate women and girls as sources of wealth that men obtain at the time of marriage. Girls who undergo the procedure might be considered more valuable, commanding a higher bride price. Families can receive more compensation from the groom in the form of money, cattle, or other goods, which economically encourages the continuation of the practice within societies (Kawai et al., 2025).

FGM’s continuation is also due to strong collectivist values and the importance of elders within their communities, as each member plays a role in maintaining this traditional practice. Elder women are seen as tradition carriers, as they educate and pass traditional practices to younger members. Men are the providers and enforcers of the tradition, as they might prefer to marry the girls who undergo FGM as a prerequisite for marriage. Finally, the girls are expected to continue the practice by undergoing the procedure and fulfilling their marriage expectations. The collective participation of all members of the community exemplifies the practice's importance in maintaining cultural standards and traditions. If women and girls refuse the practice, they might experience social exclusion, discrimination, or stigma from their communities and families (Graamans et al., 2019). The societal and communal pressure highlights why previous legal and advocacy efforts have failed to stop FGM.

Health and Human Rights Issues

Women and girls who undergo FGM suffer severe immediate and long-term health consequences, including obstetric complications, bacterial and viral infections, menstruation difficulties, and mental health issues (Klein et al., 2018). Additionally, because the instruments used are not sterilized properly, no antiseptics or antibiotics are used, and the practitioners are not medically trained, women are more likely to be subjected to lasting harmful effects (Young et al., 2020). However, despite the proven health ramifications, some women associate FGM with cleanliness and hygiene. In a study conducted in Mandera County, Kenya, 74.7% of women who were questioned about FGM had no formal education, and 86.7% said uncircumcised girls were considered unclean (Sheikh et al., 2023). The disparity between medical evidence and community beliefs about FGM indicates a gap in understanding the effects of FGM on the body, which can be better understood by evaluating FGM’s cultural and societal implications.

The United Nations (UN) and the Kenyan government have both declared FGM a human rights issue and a form of violence against women and girls. Under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), FGM violates the rights to health, physical integrity, freedom from torture, and, to an extent, the right to life (OCHR, n.d). Social and cultural expectations often pressure women and girls to undergo FGM, limiting their ability to exercise their bodily autonomy. Furthermore, FGM reinforces gendered norms that place value on a woman’s marriageability, purity, femininity, and sexuality. Rather than being treated as equal members of the community, women and girls are expected to fulfill their duties to their husbands and families. Together, these issues highlight how FGM undermines personal autonomy and contributes to gender inequality.

Legislative Enforcement

Advocacy efforts have led the Kenyan government to pass notable legislative bills to reduce FGM’s prevalence. In 2001, it passed the Children Act, which protects all children from FGM and other cultural rites that negatively affect the child’s life and welfare while also allowing a protection order if a child is subjected to or likely to be subjected to FGM. In 2010, the Kenyan government revised its constitution to strengthen efforts supported by anti-FGM advocates by guaranteeing protection from harmful cultural practices, including FGM, torture, and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. This legislation sparked greater efforts to reduce FGM statewide.

On October 4, 2011, the Kenyan government passed its most comprehensive piece of legislation that criminalizes all forms of FGM: the Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act. It outlines the offenses and punishments for FGM in Kenya, including failure to report FGM, permitting the use of premises for FGM, aiding and abetting the practice, and performing FGM (28 Too Many, 2018). However, while this Act highlights Kenya’s dedication to stopping FGM, the cultural significance and tradition led FGM practitioners to find more covert methods to continue the practice. For example, health care providers and workers moved to practice FGM in hospitals, doctors' offices, and other medical locations in exchange for payment. They view this practice as fulfilling the cultural demands of the communities while also a way to earn an income (Parsitau, 2018). The medicalization of FGM highlights the significance of finding sustainable solutions in reducing the practice, as legal enforcement alone will not reduce the issue.

International advocacy efforts have also led the fight to eradicate FGM in Kenya. In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted Resolution 67/146, which banned the practice of FGM. One hundred ninety-four UN Member States adopted this resolution that recognized FGM as an international human rights issue and called for cultural and attitudinal change to end FGM. Member states were encouraged to adopt legislation and prevention strategies to protect the rights of women and girls, which reinforced Kenya’s existing anti-FGM efforts (UN Women, 2012). In 2015, the United Nations further strengthened its commitment to eliminating FGM through the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5, Target 5.3 calls for the elimination of all harmful practices, including female genital mutilation and child, early, and forced marriage, by 2030, which highlights the need for legal reform, prevention strategies, and community-based interventions (UN, n.d.).

However, despite significant legal and international progress, FGM continues in some Kenyan communities. This persistence demonstrates that legislation alone cannot eliminate deeply rooted social and cultural norms, which emphasizes the importance of community empowerment and cultural interventions.

Community Empowerment Strategies

Advocates have used a range of awareness-building and prevention strategies to reduce FGM, including education and community participation, survivor-led advocacy, and alternative rites of passage (ARP). These methods aim to equip community members with knowledge of FGM’s health and human rights consequences and change the social norms that continue the practice. Community empowerment strategies involve families, educators, survivors, religious leaders, tribal leaders, and local organizations to encourage change from within rather than solely relying on outside intervention or legal enforcement.

Education

Many Kenyan women do not have access to formal education, which creates a significant learning gap for women to understand their reproductive systems, human rights, and the long-term effects of FGM. In 2022, the United Nations Children’s Fund found that children whose mothers have a primary education are 40% less likely to be cut than those whose mothers have no formal education (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2022). The findings demonstrate the educational impact on attitudes towards FGM across generations of people because women can gain greater knowledge to make life decisions. A study examining education and women's empowerment in Kenya found that higher levels of education were associated with greater participation in household decision-making and lower rates of FGM among first daughters (Nguyen-Phung & Nthenya, 2023). Education can build confidence and strengthen critical thinking skills that allow them to re-evaluate longstanding cultural and societal expectations surrounding FGM. With this new knowledge and skills, women and girls can bolster anti-FGM advocacy within their communities by combatting misinformation and raising awareness of gender equality.

Furthermore, education allows for knowledge exchange and collaboration beyond the individual. Women who receive formal education can share that information with their families and use it to advocate for their daughters and other female members in the communities. Additionally, community training can encourage a variety of community members, such as parents, elders, and local leaders, to participate in discussions about FGM-related issues, which allows them to gain a greater understanding of its consequences, challenge community expectations, and adapt cultural traditions (UNICEF, 2022). As awareness grows, members can collectively combat FGM by undermining previous misconceptions and implementing new customs that maintain the FGM’s representation.

Education also extends beyond the classroom through community-based initiatives that equip educators and community members with the knowledge and resources to prevent FGM. In 2025, within Samburu County in Northern Kenya, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) implemented a comprehensive teacher training program for approximately 500 primary and secondary teachers. These training courses included information on life skills, gender-based violence (GBV) prevention strategies, identifying girls at risk of FGM, and other resources to combat the attitudes that continue the practice. Women were able to gain the education needed to train future generations while having access to a safe space to share their personal experiences and the challenges surrounding FGM within their communities. As a result, a teacher network known as Voices for Hope was established to empower girls and women in Samburu with confidence and self-sustaining skills (UNESCO, 2016). Equipping teachers with the knowledge and skills to educate future generations demonstrates how education can empower communities to challenge harmful practices, promote long-term cultural change, and reduce the social norms that continue to sustain FGM.

Community Participation and Cultural Change

Because FGM carries deep cultural significance, effective education efforts must create space for participation among survivors, government officials, community members, and community leaders. Collaboration between members from different backgrounds allows communities to examine why FGM continues, recognize its harmful effects, and develop more comprehensive and sustainable strategies to reduce it. Collective participation also gives communities local agency over anti-FGM efforts, which increases the likelihood of lasting change. In a public health study on the impact of community engagement and other collaborative methods on fundamental human needs in a community, research concluded that community involvement leads to lasting change in sectors like public policy, infrastructure concerns, and public safety (Adabanya et al., 2023). While FGM and public health may differ in the impact of cultural expectations and gendered norms, specifically within a certain environment, these community engagement strategies used to transform community practices can be applied to the communities still practicing FGM. Cooperative action and involvement structures can help community members to collaborate, using their firsthand knowledge to address challenges and develop solutions to end FGM. These empowerment methods can increase social cohesion and trust through networking.

Survivors' personal experiences are especially important because they provide firsthand insight into the physical, emotional, and social consequences of FGM within communities. Survivors have personally experienced the challenges in adhering to cultural norms and expectations with the long-term effects of the practice. Because they understand the cultural significance and gendered norms of FGM and the harm, they can build rapport within their communities through open dialogue and relationship-building that outside organizations might not (UNFPA, 2024). As these members carry ethos, they can serve as leaders, educators, advocates, and mentors for girls at risk of FGM by providing guidance and support and advocating that cultural traditions can remain without harmful practices. Their participation can also reduce the stigma surrounding FGM by creating safe spaces where other survivors can share their experiences, seek support, and learn valuable skills and information from each other. Research on survivor-led advocacy is still developing, and there is limited research measuring the direct effect of FGM prevalence; however, existing evidence highlights the importance of survivor participation in building trust, challenging social norms, and increasing awareness of issues (Tsoi et al., 2025). By involving survivors in prevention efforts, communities can develop strategies that reflect the experiences of those most directly affected by FGM and better address the cultural expectations that sustain the practice.

Religious and community leaders can play a powerful role in encouraging communities to end FGM because they are often viewed as the guardians of cultural traditions and trusted community figures. Their anti-FGM advocacy can influence community expectations and encourage families to reconsider these long-held beliefs. Leaders can help communities navigate between what is culturally significant and practices and traditions that can be altered to remove risks to women and girls (UNFPA, 2021). In some communities, dialogue and advocacy led by community leaders have supported the adoption of alternative rites of passage, allowing girls to mark their transition into adulthood without undergoing FGM. For example, in some Maasai communities, girls may receive colorful beads during coming-of-age ceremonies as community members sing and dance in celebration (BEADS for Education, 2014). These alternatives preserve important cultural traditions while eliminating harmful practices, demonstrating that cultural identity and human rights need not be in opposition.

Research on the impact of ARPs on women and girls in Kenya further demonstrates the potential of these community-led alternatives. A 2021 study found that a community-led alternative rite of passage was associated with a 24.2% decline in FGM (Muhula et al., 2021). Another study in 2025 in Kajiado County, Kenya discovered that of the girls and women who participated in a community-led alternative rite of passage program, 98% remained free of FGM/C during more than three years of follow-up (Kawai et al., 2025). These findings exemplify how community participation can provide girls with an opportunity to maintain important cultural traditions while reducing the pressure to undergo FGM.

Conclusion

Because FGM is rooted in social expectations, cultural traditions, and gender norms, efforts to end it must involve coordinated action at the individual, community, state, and international levels. At the local level, education and community participation can help individuals understand the harms of FGM and create a network of survivors to amplify their voices and raise awareness. Community and religious leaders can build on survivors’ advocacy by encouraging ARPs and supporting accountability for practitioners who continue. State legislation provides the legal framework for criminalizing FGM, and international advocates and organizations encourage state-level change through prevention strategies and nationally-based interventions.

Although significant progress has occurred in reducing FGM in Kenya, the practice persists because of its deep cultural and social significance. Sustainable change depends on the enforcement of legislation and on empowering communities to actively challenge the norms that perpetuate the practice. Expanding access to education, encouraging community participation, and supporting culturally informed alternatives can lead to a reduction of FGM in Kenya while respecting the dignity, rights, and well-being of women and girls.

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Glossary

• 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: a United Nations plan adopted by all member states to achieve economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection.

• Abetting: Assisting or supporting. 

• Alternative Rite of Passage (ARP): A culturally meaningful ceremony that celebrates a girl's transition into womanhood without performing female genital mutilation (FGM).

• Antiseptic: Solutions or materials used to prevent bacteria growth. 

• Bodily Autonomy: The rights to make decisions about one’s body.

• Bolster: To support.

• Bride Price: A traditional transfer of wealth or gifts from a groom's family to the bride's family at the time of marriage.

• Children Act: A Kenyan law that establishes and protects children’s rights, parental responsibilities, alternative care, child protection services, and legal processes involving children. 

• Collectivist Values: Values that prioritize the needs of the group or society over the needs of the individual.

• Community Empowerment: A process that enables individuals and communities to participate in decision-making, build local capacity, and develop solutions to issues affecting their well-being.

• Covert: discreet or secretive.

• Cutters: practitioners who perform FGM.

• Disparity: Difference

• Ethos: One’s character. 

• Exemplifies: To show as an example. 

• Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): The partial or total removal of external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.

• Gender-Based Violence (GBV): Violence directed at an individual because of their gender, including physical, sexual, psychological, or economic abuse.

• Human Rights: Fundamental rights and freedoms that belong to every individual regardless of nationality, gender, ethnicity, religion, or other status.

• Hypothesize: To form a theory or educated guess that must be proven.

• Kenyan Constitution (2010): provides the foundational human rights framework against FGM. 

• Medicalization of FGM: The practice of FGM being performed by healthcare professionals instead of traditional practitioners.

• Misconception: A wrong idea.

• Misinformation: information that is untrue or false.

• Modesty: A way of speaking, dressing, or being that does not draw attention to a person.

• Obedience: To follow the rules, guidelines, or expectations set forth by an authority figure. 

• Obstetric: Relating to childbirth.

• Practitioners: People who carry out the cutting or removal of female genitalia. 

• Prerequisite: A condition or action someone must take before doing something. 

• Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act: Kenya’s most comprehensive piece of legislation that criminalizes all forms of FGM and safeguards women’s mental or physical integrity. 

• Ramifications: Consequences.

• Rapport: Trust

• Resolution 67/146: a United Nations resolution signed by 194 UN Member States that bans FGM. 

• Reap: To receive the benefits of an action.

• Rite of Passage: A cultural ceremony or tradition marking an individual's transition from one stage of life to another.

• Social Norms: Shared expectations, beliefs, and unwritten rules that influence behavior within a community.

• Sterilize: To free an object or person of germs or harmful bacteria that negatively affect a person’s health. 

• Stigma: A negative belief a society has about an idea or action. 

• Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5.3: A United Nations target under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that calls for the elimination of harmful practices, including female genital mutilation and child, early, and forced marriage, by 2030.

• Survivor-led Advocacy: Advocacy led by individuals who have experienced FGM and use their lived experiences to educate communities, support survivors, and promote the abandonment of the practice.

• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF): A United Nations agency that works to protect children's rights and supports global efforts to eliminate FGM through education, advocacy, and community-based programs.

• UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW): A UN-adopted international treaty to end gender discrimination.

• UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC): A UN-adopted international treaty to protect the civil, political, economic, social, health, and cultural rights of a child.

• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): A United Nations agency that promotes education, science, culture, and international cooperation, including initiatives that support girls' education and gender equality.

• United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA): A United Nations agency dedicated to improving sexual and reproductive health, advancing gender equality, and supporting programs to eliminate FGM.

• World Health Organization (WHO): The United Nations agency responsible for international public health that provides guidance, research, and definitions related to FGM and its health consequences.

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AI Disclosure:  AI tools (ChatGPT and Microsoft Copilot) were used during the editing process to assist with wording, organization, and cohesion. The research, source decisions, argument, and overall structure of the article were made by the author.