Aestheticized Tolerance: Boys Love Dramas and the Limits of LGBTQ+ Representation in Mainland China

Author: Vivian Sun

November 6, 2025

Background

Boys Love (BL) originated from Japanese girls’ manga in the 1970s. It emphasizes the romance and sex between males. In contrast to “homosexual literature,” BL is not made for gay men, but rather as a form of media destined for women who use male characters to project their feelings and desires. It expands the romantic discourse pattern of traditional female manga, but transforms the female-male relationship into a male-male one. Following the emergence of BL culture, a fan group named “Rotten Girls” (腐女) emerged. This fan group created a cultural space through the imaging, discussion, and recreation of female domination that excludes the male gaze. Indeed, the female fandom of BL has profound implications for gender politics. BL is thought to be a revolt and escape from patriarchal society, where women are traditionally placed in an unequal status to men. Through this media, women can explore their desires and social power relations, rather than being oppressed and humiliated through heterosexual narratives. 

However, this “sexual liberation” is not without contradictions. In BL stories, patriarchal character dichotomies of “seme/uke” (dominant/submissive, 攻/受) still exist, where seme represents power and dominance, while uke represents gentleness and submissiveness. Despite these tensions, BL still offers a safe space for female imagination, where women can portray their feelings, desires, and pains.

Case Study: Revenged Love

In 2025, the Chinese BL TV drama Revenged Love became a sensational hit in Asia and around the world. Produced by the BL platform GagaOOLala, the show was the most popular drama on the platform. Within eight episodes, it became the most-liked, commented-on, bookmarked, and shared TV series in history. It reached the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany from Taiwan. On social media, the short clips of the show garnered millions of views and tens of thousands of likes within 24 hours, prompting fans to create new stories on their own.

[Image credit: GagaOOLala]

Revenged Love was an adaptation of the novel written by renowned Chinese BL writer Cha Jidan, who also screen-wrote the series adaptation. Her novel was famous for constructing emotionally charged narratives with sharply contrasting characters, whose stories generally followed a traditional pattern of “dominant seme and submissive uke” while incorporating the structure of modern romance. 

The plot follows the story of two male couples. The protagonist, Wu Suowei (played by Zi Yu), is a poor, struggling young man whose girlfriend left him due to his financial struggles. Determined to enact his revenge, he reinvents himself and sets his sights on her new boyfriend, the rich heir Chi Cheng (played by Tian Xuning). What started as a revenge plot turns into a real attraction. Wu, who originally identified as straight, finds himself attracted to Chi Cheng, who also eventually comes to identify as gay. The secondary couple features Chi Cheng’s best friend, Guo Chengyu (played by Zhan Xuan), and Jiang Xiaoshuai (played by Liu Xuancheng), who works as a doctor at a clinic and is known for his gentle demeanor. Guo appears carefree and reckless, but he becomes emotionally captivated at first sight by Jiang, who has closed himself off due to past sexual trauma. Their relationship reflects the familiar romantic theme of “healing through love”, in which Guo’s persistence and affection soften Jiang’s defenses, allowing them to transform and redeem each other.

The Evolution of BL Culture in China and the Legacy of Chai Jidan

Ever since the Japanese BL culture began to spread in China, Danmei, a Chinese term for BL, has formed a unique online culture. Along with the rise of the internet community in the 21st century, Jinjiang Literature City, Baidu Tieba, Douban Forum, Sina Weibo, and the video-sharing site Bilibili all gave “Rotten Girls” spaces for interaction and creation. After the 2010s, with the emergence of female purchasing power and online video platforms, the BL genre began to attract commercial attention.

In Chinese BL drama history, Chai Jidan is an indispensable figure. In 2015, she produced a low-budget web drama Counterattack (the former version of Revenged Love), adapted from her novel. This adaptation received more than 25 million views within four weeks of its release, becoming an internet sensation. The following year, the BL drama Addicted became a national phenomenon, portraying the romantic relationship between two high school boys. Although the quality of both productions was modest, the series received great popularity due to its sincere emotions and bold representation of same-sex intimacy. Within 24 hours, it surpassed ten million views, and within two weeks, it exceeded one hundred million. However, because of the series’s direct depiction of homosexual feelings, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film, and Television of China removed the show after airing 15 episodes, cutting its intended 20-episode run short. The show’s cast, despite having gained immense popularity in Asia, was banned from the mainstream media, marking a turning point in the history of BL series in China. Since then, BL adaptations have entered what many fans refer to as the “Age of Metaphor,” turning from Danmei to Dangai (a self-censored version of Danmei). This is where male same-sex relationships were intentionally obscured. While later shows like The Untamed and Word of Honor became big commercial successes, audiences lamented their “sweetness without lust,” longing for true BL stories.

In Revenged Love, not only did Chai recreate Counterattack, but also implicitly insisted on creating authentic BL stories. Chai, who is often hailed by her fans as the “only producer in China who has dared to create a true BL,” promised on social media that her show would be “uncensored, undiluted,” preserving the romance and tension of the genre. Compared to Counterattack, Revenged Love shows significant improvements in cinematography, lighting, and casting, with a subtle, aesthetic tone that audiences have praised as “superior to any classic BL series from Thailand, Japan, and Taiwan.”

In addition, Revenged Love has avoided the same fate as Addicted, as it was released on foreign platforms instead of Chinese websites, bypassing China’s censors. Although Chinese authorities have generally banned the distribution of gay media, viewers can consume this genre via Bilibili, Baidu Cloud, Renren Yingshi, or by using VPNs to access foreign websites. Thus, Revenged Love has become an eruption of long-repressed cultural and emotional demands from female audiences, as well as a collective desire to reclaim authenticity in BL stories.

Idealized Desire and the Repackaging of Homosexual Intimacy

Although Revenged Love has swept the BL market in Asia with its sophisticated production and faithful performance, it still adheres to traditional gender roles and politics. The series remains deeply rooted in BL’s tradition of romance, with characterization and emotional structures that still follow heterosexual patterns. One of the most popular scenes in the series is the first kiss between the two main characters. The main seme (Chi Cheng) asks, “Do you like a man?” To which the main uke (Wu Suowei) answers with an innocent and sincere tone, “I’m not sure if I like men. All I know is that I like you.” This seemingly romantic line and forced answer from Wu Suowei perfectly encapsulates a common BL convention. The characters seldom admit that they are gay. Instead, homosexual relationships are considered as gender-transcendent “special exceptions.” This “pure love” logic both erases gay identity and detaches the story from the reality of gay life and social marginalization.

The four characters in this series follow the ‘seme/uke’ (dominant/submissive) trope central to BL narratives. Main seme (Chi Cheng) is a rich, confident, handsome, sexually experienced, emotionally dominant man who has dated women before. Main uke (Wu Suowei), on the other hand, has an innocent, sensitive, and latent purity. He has no previous homosexual experience, and his first contact with it occurs due to a misunderstanding. As the relationship develops, Wu Suowei is gradually “tamed” through Chi Cheng’s affection. This is a reflection of the Chinese “Cinderella and the CEO” stereotype, suggesting that BL shows in China are still dominated by heterosexual romance and traditional gender power structures. The secondary couple further reproduces the classic BL formula. The seme (Guo Chengyu) falls in love and pursues relentlessly, while the uke (Jiang Xiaoshuai), traumatized by past emotional injuries, regains the power of love through Guo’s healing. This narrative, inherited from traditional gender roles in heterosexual romance, provides a critical emotional channel for female audiences, while simultaneously reenacting the trauma and fulfilling a fantasy of redemption.

An interesting feature of this series is that Chai Jidan had subtly “purified” the characters in Revenged Love. In this new version, she downplayed Chi Cheng’s previous multiple sexual relationships and changed the early coercive relationship with Wu Suowei into a more equal one. She also removed Chi Cheng’s ambiguous romantic relationship with Guo Chengyu. Both editions fit the ideal of “Double Clean” (双洁), where both partners are virginal and mutually exclusive, a common trope in BL novels. In addition, while the series depicted the marital pressures of Chi Cheng, this conflict is quickly resolved without affecting either couple’s romance. The main couple’s only breakup happens after Chi Cheng’s ex reappears. A storyline that resembles heterosexual romance conventions. Thus, it’s clear that Revenged Love extends the heterosexual and romantic tradition of BL Dramas. On the surface, it emphasizes the tolerance of homosexual relationships. However, this tolerance is aestheticized and sanitized as “controlled homosexual intimacy” that fails to challenge the patriarchy or the heterosexual order.

This aesthetic tolerance extends beyond the screen, shaping how BL shows and their stars are viewed in Chinese entertainment culture. The huge success of Revenged Love has not only increased the audience’s interest in the drama but has also helped the four actors to become top stars in China. However, this sensational success did not trigger any discussions on the LGBTQ+ online platform. Instead, it became completely absorbed into the entertainment industry and its “influence logic,” reducing it to a “homosexual performance” ready for mass consumption. After the show’s airing, it was revealed that the two leading actors (Zi Yu and Tian Xuning) continued to have a heterosexual relationship, prompting a popular joke on the internet. “Being gay is work, being straight is life.” There is a certain irony in this expression. What most of the “Rotten Girls” audience really wants to see is “being gay is life.” But this “life” is in fact a performative and observable “life.”The actors, even if they are straight, are expected to remain “gay” beyond the screen. Meanwhile, the statement, “being gay is work,” signals that the audience is viewing same-sex intimacy as a form of entertainment, indulging in fandom and fantasy. This indulgence has reduced the potential of BL works for generating social awareness regarding sexual minority communities. When “homosexuality” is portrayed for entertainment and consumption purposes, meaningful social dialogue and real empathy are weakened, disregarding the marginalization of the LGBTQ + community.

From Realism to Entertainment: The Evolution of Queer Literature to BL Culture in China

Prior to the emergence of BL culture in China, the queer literature and films in mainland China (from the 90s to the beginning of the 21st century) often depicted strong realism, even tragedy. For example, movies including Farewell My Concubine (1993), East Palace, West Palace (1996), Lan Yu (2001), Fish and Elephant (2001), and Spring Fever (2009) portrayed homosexuality as a struggle under the control of the state and moral constraints, contrary to its contemporary depiction as an aesthetic fantasy in BLs. These works are generally focused on survival rather than romance. The characters are always trapped in the conflict between individual desire and social ideology. Their destiny, whether it be self-destruction, betrayal, or silence, is a reflection of the oppression of gay individuals. For instance, the film East Palace, West Palace, written by Wang Xiaobo, a novelist and a LGBTQ+ researcher, directly presented the issue of discrimination against gay people and problems of police persecution.

[Image source: The Criterion Collection]

In contrast, post-2010 BL dramas (Danmei and Dangai), Counterattack (2015), Addicted (2016), Guardian (2018), The Untamed (2019), and Word of Honor (2021), have replaced realism with idealized romance, unlike previous queer films, which were mostly based on actual social conditions. Modern BL works are produced, consumed, and emotionally shaped by women who want to escape patriarchal society by reenacting their experiences in homosexual relationships.

Interestingly, Stanley Kwan, the director of Lan Yu and a homosexual himself, noticed this change subtly during an interview on the twentieth anniversary of the film. He pointed out that the social climate in Hong Kong and mainland China has drastically changed since the movie’s original release. Stories containing homosexual themes are no longer taboo. They have instead become part of mainstream business entertainment, and according to Kwang, are ready to be “consumed by everyone as a seasonal commercial element.” While he acknowledges that BL’s current popularity has at least made homosexual themes more visible, they have become something that can be consumed and repackaged as safe, idealized, and conflict-free depictions of homosexuality. In other words, mainstream media no longer rejects same-sex love, but it has never fully embraced or cared about it. 

A Comparative Analysis of BL Drama Culture between Mainland China, Taiwan, and Thailand

Similar to mainland China, Taiwan’s BL culture developed in two phases, separated by the legalization of same-sex marriage in Taiwan. Before same-sex marriage was legalized, Taiwan’s queer movies and TV shows were very similar to those of mainland China’s homosexual movies in the 90s and early 21st century. Works such as The Wedding Banquet (1993), Brokeback Mountain (2005), and Suk Suk (2019) focused on the characters’ conflict between emotional experience and the social environment. After the legalization of same-sex marriage, BL dramas similar to Revenged Love became popular in Taiwan. Works such as No.1 For You (2021), History4: Close to You (2021), and Unknown (2024) were all labeled as BL dramas and emphasized romantic fantasy. 

In contrast, the development of BL Culture in Thailand presents another distinctive pattern. Thai BL works have long been labeled as BL dramas, and in the most part, do not focus on the social realities of homosexuality like early works in Taiwan and mainland China. Yet, even these BL works for entertainment imply criticism of social problems. For example, To Sir, With Love (2021) reflected the pressures and struggles of the LGBTQ+ community through depictions of the protagonist’s psychological conflicts, being raised in an environment of social discrimination and prejudice. This encourages the audience to reflect on how social norms impact the expression of personal identity and love. The producers and actors of BL dramas in Thailand exert a great amount of influence on the visibility of the LGBTQ+ community. For example, during the filming of the BL drama Not Me, actors Atthaphan Phunsawat and Off Jumpol Adulkittiporn appeared at a real marriage equality rally and expressed the demands of the LGBTQ+ community. 

As indicated in the case of Taiwan, when entertainment-oriented BL dramas appear in an environment where sexual minorities already enjoy sufficient legal and social protections, these works are relatively appropriate. Yet in mainland China, where LGBTQ+ rights remain largely unprotected and even censored, the mere pursuit of BL entertainment may have a counterproductive effect. This “frenzy” does not translate into real recognition or improvement of the LGBTQ+ community’s social rights. On the contrary, as the situation persists, real-life problems continue to be hidden, giving the public an impression that simple entertainment is enough for social contestation, while fundamental issues like legal protection and social acceptance remain ignored.

Furthermore, the situation in Thailand demonstrates that BL culture can, to a certain extent, have a positive impact on society. When BL dramas incorporate depictions of social issues faced by LGBTQ+ individuals and actors openly support minority rights, the tendency toward purely commercialized and entertainment-oriented works is partially corrected, ensuring that they realistically tell same-sex stories. In other words, the issue does not lie with BL as a genre, as the original intention of telling same-sex stories is valuable, but rather with the gradual distortion caused by commercialization and environment-driven adaptation, weakening the visibility and seriousness of LGBTQ+ themes. The case of Thailand demonstrates a potential balance between entertainment and social advocacy, which is absent in the Chinese context. 

At the same time, the constant struggle between serious and non-commercial works in China is understandable. On one hand, these works have economic and political risks due to their realistic depictions of homosexual life. On the other hand, over-realistic depictions can be too heavy and painful for audiences, discouraging consumers from looking for leisure and escapism within these works. In this context, it makes sense for some LGBTQ+ activists to withdraw from the pursuit of social change in favor of more secure, entertaining content.

However, this tendency toward entertainment-oriented representation still warrants reflection. Is it really necessary, in a restrictive institutional and social setting, to present homosexual themes in a purely entertaining way? The answer is no. As seen in Thailand, Chinese BL culture could also preserve creativity and visibility while actively promoting the social rights of minorities beyond entertainment purposes. Only when BL engages in the real struggles of marginalized communities can it make a real contribution to social progress and real inclusion.

Conclusion

Chinese BL culture has gone from realism to entertainment, as it shifted from literature focusing on genuine homosexual stories to industrial products geared towards female entertainment and commercial interests. While this change has increased the visibility and popularity of homosexual themes, it has also sacrificed the LGBTQ+ community’s true experience and social realities. However, this does not mean that BL culture is worthless, at least as the Thai example proves. Commercialization is not inherently contrary to social responsibility. The problem lies in the attitudes and intentions of the creators. It shows whether they want to preserve traces of the real-life issues and create a space for collective reflection in an entertaining context. Chai Jidan’s success shows the enormous potential of women in the BL market, but her work has little to do with LGBTQ+ rights, as she is not a positive advocate or an unconscious oppressor, but a creator who seeks to survive within the limits of a commercial structure. 

However, I believe that those who are genuinely concerned about the rights and aspirations of the LGBTQ+ community have not vanished. Like Wang Xiaobo, who revealed structural oppression through the script of East Palace, West Palace, and Stanley Kwan, who exposed the pain of homosexual love in Lan Yu, there is a proven number of writers who want to continue this kind of “gentle rebellion” with new language, forms, and media. They may not be able to promote their work directly, but they can still engage in covert “strategic expression,” avoiding censorship, but also creating an emotional and aesthetic impression of the LGBTQ+ community. So the question for China does not currently lie in “whether homosexual themes will make it into mainstream media,” but rather “whether we can create it in mainstream.” Only when creators become the “Chai Jidan of equality,” transforming entertainment into a hidden but enduring tool of resistance, will mainland China’s LGBTQ+ narrative truly shift from consumption to awareness, from fantasy to empathy.

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Glossary

• Addicted (上瘾): Chai Jidan’s second BL drama work released in 2016, portraying the romantic relationship between two high school boys. Both of its actors became top stars in Asia.

• Boys Love (BL): A literary and media genre emphasizing romance and/or sex between males. Its authors and consumers are usually women (often called “Rotten Girls”) who are fascinated by male-male romance.

• Brokeback Mountain (斷背山): A 2005 film directed by Ang Lee, depicting a tragic love story between two cowboys. It became a global cultural reference for same-sex love in mainstream cinema.

• Chai Jidan (柴鸡蛋): One of China’s most famous BL writers. She began producing BL dramas in 2015. Her second work, Addicted, was banned by Chinese authorities before its official ending.

• Chi Cheng (池骋): The main seme in Revenged Love, a rich heir.

• Counterattack (逆袭之爱上情敌): The original version of Revenged Love, written by Chai Jidan in 2015. Both of its actors became popular stars, though not as famous as those in her later works.

• Danmei (耽美): A Chinese term equivalent to BL, literally meaning “indulgence in beauty.” It refers to literature, TV series, and other media depicting romantic or sexual relationships between men.

• Double Clean (双洁): A common expectation in BL novels that both protagonists are “pure,” having no prior romantic or sexual relationships.

• East Palace, West Palace (东宫西宫): A 1996 Chinese queer film directed by Zhang Yuan and screenwrote by Wang Xiaobo, often considered mainland China’s first homosexual-themed movie.

• Farewell My Concubine (霸王别姬): A 1993 Chinese film directed by Chen Kaige, starring Leslie Cheung. It portrays complex gender and identity issues through the story of two Peking opera performers.

• Fish and Elephant (今年夏天): A 2001 Chinese lesbian film directed by Li Yu, notable for being the first mainland Chinese film openly centered on lesbian relationships.

• Gender Politics: The power structures and social dynamics governing gender relations, often reflected in media representations.

• Guardian (镇魂): The first Dangai (censored BL-adapted) work in mainland China. Both actors became top stars, with the seme actor later achieving greater fame and winning multiple awards. It is based on a novel of the same name, depicting the partnership and subtle romantic tension between a human professor and a supernatural guardian who work together to protect their city from mysterious forces.

• Heterosexual Narrative: A dominant narrative framework centering on heterosexual relationships, often marginalizing or erasing queer identities.

• Homosexual Literature: Literary works that explore romantic and sexual relationships between people of the same sex, often challenging heteronormative ideologies.

• History4 - Close to You (History4 - 近距離愛上你): A 2021 Taiwanese BL drama, part of the HIStory series, known for its explicit portrayal of male-male relationships and emotional complexity.

• Lan Yu (蓝宇): A 2001 Chinese gay film directed by Stanley Kwan, based on an online novel. It portrays a tragic love affair between a businessman and a young student in 1990s Beijing.

• Male Gaze: A concept from feminist theory describing how visual arts and literature often depict the world from a masculine, heterosexual perspective, objectifying women — or in BL, sometimes reworking this dynamic through male-male romance.

• No.1 For You (永遠的第一名): A Taiwanese BL series released in 2020, the first installment of the We Best Love series, depicting the rivalry and affection between two male students.

• Not Me: A 2021 Thai BL series, notable for its political undertones and exploration of identity and activism.

• Patriarchal Society: A social system in which men hold primary power, shaping cultural norms, laws, and media representations.

• Revenged Love (逆爱): A Chinese BL drama produced by the platform GagaOOLala in 2025, written by Chai Jidan. It tells the story of love and class conflict between Wu Suowei and Chi Cheng.

• Rotten Girls (腐女): A term used to describe female fans of BL who actively create and consume male-male romance content.

• Self-censorship: The act of suppressing or altering one’s own expression to conform to political, social, or moral restrictions, especially under state surveillance or censorship regimes.

• Seme (攻): The dominant or traditionally “masculine” partner in BL relationships.

• Sexual Liberation: The movement or philosophy promoting the acceptance and freedom of diverse sexual expressions and identities.

• Spring Fever (春风沉醉的夜晚): A 2009 Chinese film directed by Lou Ye, depicting a clandestine gay relationship in contemporary China.

• Stanley Kwan (関錦鵬): A Hong Kong gay film director known for his works on gender, sexuality, and identity, including Lan Yu (2001).

• Suk Suk (叔叔): A 2019 Hong Kong film directed by Ray Yeung, portraying the late-life love of two older gay men, exploring themes of aging and social invisibility.

• The Untamed (陈情令): The second major Dangai work in mainland China. Both of its lead actors became top stars, among the most famous celebrities in China today. It is based on the novel Mo Dao Zu Shi, telling the story of two cultivators, whose deep bond develops as they uncover dark secrets in the cultivation world and fight against injustice together.

• The Wedding Banquet (喜宴): A 1993 film by Ang Lee about a gay Taiwanese man who stages a marriage of convenience to please his parents, exploring cultural and familial tensions.

• Tian Xuning (田栩宁): The actor who plays Chi Cheng in Revenged Love.

• To Sr, With Love: A 2021 Thai BL series that explores teacher-student love and social prejudice.

• Uke (受): The submissive or traditionally “feminine” partner in BL relationships.

• Unknown (關於未知的我們): A 2024 Taiwanese BL series centered on a pseudo-brother relationship, in which an older man saves a younger boy and raises him as his brother. It was adopted from a famous Chinese online BL novel.

• Wang Xiaobo (王小波): A famous Chinese novelist whose works often explore sexuality, freedom, and individuality, influencing contemporary Chinese queer writing.

• Word of Honor (山河令): The third Dangai work in mainland China. Both of its lead actors became top stars, though one was later banned due to a politically sensitive incident in Japan. It describes Zhou Zishu, a former assassin, and Wen Kexing, a mysterious wanderer, whose bond develops as they navigate the martial arts world.

• Wu Suowei (吴所谓): The main uke in Revenged Love, a poor young man struggling for survival.

• Zi Yu (梓渝): The actor playing Wu Suowei in Revenged Love.

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